Citation: Liu Dian-he, Liu Cheng-lin, Wang Chun-lian, Yu Xiao-can. 2024. Research progress of terrestrial brine-type lithium deposits worldwide: A review. China Geology. doi: 10.31035/CG20230128. |
Lithium possesses numerous outstanding physical and chemical properties. It is widely used in the aerospace industry because it is the lightest metal on the earth and is applied to nuclear fusion reactors due to its low melting point and high boiling point. Additionally, it is being implemented in new energy lithium batteries and other energy storage fields due to its low electronegativity. In addition, lithium has a wide range of applications in traditional fields such as glass, lubricants, ceramics, and medical care, as well as in emerging fields such as energy storage, adiabatic materials, polymer materials, and the photovoltaics industry (Wang GS, 2001; Shen J and Dai BL, 2009; Yaksic AY and Tilton JE, 2009; Gruber PW et al., 2011; U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), 2019; Ejeian M et al., 2021). In recent years, lithium has been classified as a key mineral resource by many countries, including China, the United States, the European Union, and Japan and so on (Wang GS, 2001; USGS, 2019, 2023; Liu CL et al., 2021).
With the growth of the new energy automobile industry from 2012 to 2022, the price of lithium carbonate has risen, and lithium mines have become the target of competition among mining enterprises. Meanwhile, strong demand from the downstream industry has naturally led to the exploration and development of upstream primary products. Due to the high demand for lithium and the rapid price growth in 2022, the global lithium industry is expected to expand, leading lithium producers to enhance their production capacity. This trend is expected to continue in the coming years (Fig. 1; Smith GI et al., 1983; Schulz KJ et al., 2017; Sun X et al., 2022; USGS, 2023).
Most lithium deposits are distributed in Bolivia, Argentina, Chile, the United States, Australia, China, Canada, and other countries, with a resource of about 98 million metric tons (Mt). The reserves are primarily concentrated in Chile, Australia, Argentina, China, and other countries, with total reserves of approximately 26 Mt (USGS, 2023). Australia, Chile, China, and Argentina supply most of the world’s lithium ore. In addition, some small-scale producers, including Portugal, Canada, Brazil, Zimbabwe, and Canada, also supply a portion of their lithium products (Fig. 2).
According to the occurrence state and resource utilization mode of lithium, lithium deposits are classified into hard rock-, brine- and unconventional-type (Kesler SE et al., 2012; Mohr SH et al., 2012; Bradley D et al., 2013; Munk LA et al., 2016; Benson TR et al., 2017; Kavanagh L et al., 2018; Coffey DM et al., 2021). The hard rock types are further subdivided into granite-pegmatite and alkaline feldspar granite subtypes (Fei GC et al., 2020; Zhao YJ et al., 2021). Brine types are subdivided into brine in plateau salt lakes (Zheng XY et al., 2002; Hofstra AH et al., 2013), underground brine (oilfield brine) (Vine JD, 1976; Bottomley DJ et al., 2003; Birkle P et al., 2009), and geothermal brine subtypes. Unconventional types are classified into clay type, lithium zeolite type, etc (Glanzman RK et al., 1978). At present, the primary types of mining and utilization are brine type in plateau salt lakes and hard rock type. The total amount of brine-type lithium resources in salt lakes is much greater than that of hard rock type due to its low mining costs (Kesler SE et al., 2012; Tomascak PB et al., 2016). The development and utilization cost are 2‒3 times lower than that of hard rock type, accounting for 64% of the current development and utilization (Kesler SE et al., 2012; Munk LA et al., 2016; Tomascak PB et al., 2016; USGS, 2023). The percentage of various types of lithium deposits for development and utilization is as follows: brine lithium deposits in plateau salt lakes account for 58%, pegmatitic-type for 26%, clay-type for 7%, underground brine (oilfield brine) for 3%, geothermal brines for 3%, and lithium zeolites for 3% (USGS, 2023). Pegmatite-type lithium deposits are primarily found in Australia, Zimbabwe, China, and the United States. Clay-type lithium resources are primarily located in Mexico, the United States, Peru, and Serbia. Brine-type lithium deposits are primarily found in Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, China, and the United States. (Kesler SE et al., 2012; Liu LJ et al., 2017; USGS, 2023) (Fig. 3). In this study, we have summarized and analyzed the distribution, geological characteristics, metallogenic mechanisms of different types of terrestrial brine deposits worldwide. Our aim is to contribute to the exploration of lithium deposits and the discovery of more lithium resources. At the same time, it is the responsibility of geologists to focus on the national mineral exploration needs and discover large and high-quality mines for China.
Brine-type lithium deposits in salt lakes are primarily located on the three major plateaus in the world: the Andean Plateau in South America, the Western Plateau in North America, and the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau in China. Underground brine-type deposits (oilfield brine) have been found in South China in recent years, such as in the Jianghan (Li RQ et al., 2013; Shen LJ et al., 2014; Liu CL et al., 2016; Wang CL et al., 2018, 2021a) and Jitai Basins (Wang CL et al., 2020). In addition, the underground brines in the Siberia platform are rich in lithium resources (Alexeev SV et al., 2020).
There are hundreds of salt lakes distributed in closed basins in the Andean Plateau of South America. Brines in salt lakes are endowed with significant amounts of lithium (Li), potassium (K), magnesium (Mg), boron (B), bromine (Br), rubidium (Rb), cesium (Cs), and other elements, making them a valuable source of liquid minerals globally. Among them, the most famous salt lakes are Uyuni in Bolivia, Atacama in Chile, and Hombre Muerto in Argentina. The area encompassed by the three salt lakes is known as the ‘Lithium Triangle’ due to its high-grade and huge lithium resources (Fig. 4; Table 1). The area, elevation, lithium concentration, and resource reserves of brine in salt lakes on the plateau are shown in Table 2. The larger areas include Uyuni (10580 km2), Atacama (3000 km2), Coipasa (2500 km2), Arizaro (1708 km2), Antofalla-Botijuelas (655 km2), and so on. The concentration of lithium in brine ranges from 57 mg/L to 1490 mg/L. Among them, the areas with relatively high lithium concentrations include Olaroz (260‒1490 mg/L), Atacama (1400 mg/L), Pozuelos (96‒940 mg/L), Cauchari (860 mg/L), Uyuni (316‒602 mg/L), Hombre Muerto (521 mg/L), Pastos Grandes (483 mg/L), and others. The salt lake with the largest lithium resource reserves is Uyuni (10.2 Mt), followed by Atacama (6.3 Mt), Olaroz (1.5 Mt), Rincon (1.1 Mt), Cauchari (1.06 Mt), Diablillos (0.9 Mt), and Hombre Muerto (0.8 Mt). The Mg/Li ratio is a crucial index for measuring the extraction cost of brine. A lower ratio indicates a more efficient extraction process. The Mg/Li ratios in the brines of the South American plateau are generally very low, ranging from 0.01 to 1.24, with an average value of 0.45. These ratios indicate high-quality lithium brine deposits.
The lithium-rich brine deposits in North America are primarily distributed in the Western Plateau region of the United States, including Clayton Valley, Sears Lake, the Great Salt Lake, and other deposits (Fig. 5). Furthermore, the underground brine of the Salton Sea contains lithium resources. The brines of Clayton Valley and Great Salt Lake have elevations greater than 1000 m, followed by Sears Lake. The Salton Sea brines were primarily deposited at depths of 1870 m and 3170 m. The overall elevation of the North American brine deposits is considerably lower than that of the South American plateau. The lithium concentrations of brines in Clayton Valley and Salton Sea are high, averaging more than 160 mg/L. The lithium grades in Sears Lake and Great Salt Lake are close to the lowest industrial grade. The Mg/Li ratios of brines vary significantly. The Mg/Li ratios of the Great Salt Lake is 250, while those of Clayton Valley, Sears Lake, and Salton Sea are between 0.17 and 4.10 (Table 3). These variations indicate distinct hydrochemical characteristics, suggesting potential differences in deposit genesis and geological influences and transformations in later periods.
Lithium-rich brines in salt lakes are primarily located in the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau region in China, including Tibet and the Qaidam Basin in Qinghai province, making it the world's second-largest brine-type lithium resource distribution area after South America (Fig. 6).
There are more than 2,000 lakes in Tibet, including about 500 salt lakes covering an area of 8225.18 km2, which accounts for 30.46% of the total lake area in Tibet. The altitude of most salt lakes ranges from 4300 m to 5000 m (Zheng MP et al., 2001). Salt lakes are primarily distributed on the northern and southern sides of the Bangong–Nujiang suture zones in northern Tibet, with small amounts also found in southern and eastern Tibet (Table 4).
The Qaidam Basin comprises 37 lakes, with 30 of them being salt lakes. Most lakes are situated between 2700 m and 3000 m in elevation, such as Yiliping, East Tajinar, West Tajinar, Qarhan, Da Qaidam, Xiao Qaidam, Kunteyi, Dalangtans, and Gasikule Lakes (Table 4; Zhu RZ et al., 1989; Wang A et al., 2016).
Compared with the plateau of South and North America, the Mg/Li ratio of brine on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau was generally higher, ranging from 23.07 to 199.19, with an average of 78.98, and reaching up to 517.34 in Qarhan Salt Lake, except for the extremely low Mg/Li ratios of Zabye (0.01) and Dangxiong Co (0.36) (Table 4).
Since the Mesozoic era, under the influence of an extremely arid climate, dozens of evaporite basins have formed in South China. Examples include the Jianghan, Jitai, Hengyang, and Qingjiang basins. Among them, underground brine lithium deposits have been discovered in the Jiangling and Qianjiang depressions of the Jianghan Basin and the Jitai Basin in recent years (Fig.7; Liu CL et al., 2013, 2016, 2021; Wang CL et al., 2020; Wang CL et al., 2021b). The Jianghan Basin covers an area of 36360 square kilometers. Under the influence of faults, the basin is divided into seven depressions and five uplifts. Among them, brine exists on a large scale in Jiangling depression (6500 km2) and Qianjiang depression (2500 km2) (Table 5).
The lithium concentration in brines in the Jianghan Basin ranges from 25 mg/L to 182 mg/L, with the highest Mg/Li ratio being 3.67. In contrast, the lithium concentration of brines in the Jitai Basin is slightly higher, but the basin area is smaller than that of the Jianghan Basin, and the Mg/Li ratio is 1.01 (Table 5). In general, the Mg/Li ratios in the brines of the Jianghan and Jitai Basins in South China are low, similar to those of the South American and North American plateaus. The estimated resources of underground brine, managed through engineering in the Jiangling Depression integrated exploration district, amount to 1.209 Mt (Li2O). At the same time, the predicted lithium resource (LiCl) of brine obtained from the Qianjiang Formation in the Qianjiang Depression is 3.5 Mt (Institute of Mineral Resources, Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences, 2011, 2013).
The formation and origin of the underground brine in the Siberian Platform remain unknown. There are many different ideas, related not only to the unique chemical composition of the brine and the high salinity of the groundwater but also to its distribution over large areas of the oldest plates of the Earth's continental crust. The Siberian Platform covers an area of over 4.4 million km2, and the brine-rich areas are divided into the Angara-Lena, Tunguska, Yakutian, and Olenek artesian basins (ABs) regions (Fig. 8). The brines in the Angara-Lena, Tunguska, and Yakutian ABs are predominantly located in the saline strata of the Cambrian. In contrast, the brines in the Olenek ABs are mainly precent in the Upper Proterozoic-Middle Cambrian and non-saline aquifers of the Upper Cambrian, with some also found in the Kimberley pluton. The brines have different salinities; the overall salinity varies from 195 g/L to 630 g/L, and the lithium concentration in the brine section ranges from 33.5 mg/L to 480 mg/L (Alekseeva LP and Alekseev SV, 2018; Alexeev SV et al., 2020).
Brine resources in salt lakes are currently concentrated in North America, South America, the Tibetan Plateau, and other high-altitude areas where the climate is arid. Evaporation rates are much higher than precipitation, creating natural conditions for the enrichment of lithium and other useful elements. Most of the salt lakes are surrounded by Paleocene to Quaternary strata. The dry salt flats and salt lakes are connected to the atmosphere, which is obviously affected by the current climate, precipitation, and evaporation. These factors are reflected in the fluctuating concentration of the useful elements in the brine.
Brine lithium deposits in the Andean Plateau of South America are typically characterized by high elevations, numerous salt lakes, high lithium grades, and low Mg/Li ratios (Kampf SK et al., 2005; Vinante D and Alonso RN, 2006; López Steinmetz RL et al., 2018, 2020; Liu CL et al., 2021). Except for Atacama, which has a lower elevation of 2305 m, all salt lakes have elevations above 3300 m. The Uyuni salt lake has the largest area (10580 km2) and the largest global lithium reserves. The lithium concentration of the brine ranges from 316 mg/L to 602 mg/L, with an average of 350 mg/L. The Atacama salt lake covers a saline area of approximately 3000 km2, with an estimated volume of rock salt ranging from 1500 km3 to 2200 km3. The salt deposits are approximately 900 m thick, with a lithium concentration of up to 1400 mg/L (Gruber PW et al., 2011). The Hombre Muerto salt lake has attracted increasing attention and has been exploited due to its vast expanse and high lithium concentration. In addition to highland saline lake-type brine deposits, geothermal brines have been found in El Tatio, Chile (Cortecci G et al., 2005).
The surrounding rocks of the Uyuni and Coibasa salt lakes in Bolivia consist mainly of Cenozoic andesite, rhyolite, felsic tuffs, and Quaternary alluvial deposits, which exhibit a high lithium concentration. The lithium-rich salt crust in the Salar de Uyuni varies in thickness from less than 2 m at the edge of the salt layer to approximately 11 m in the center (Risacher F and Fritz B, 1991). Boreholes drilled in the central part of the Uyuni salt lake encountered 11 salt layers with a total thickness of 80 m and at a depth of 121 m.
The Atacama salt lake in Chile are surrounded by a geological setting characterized by Paleozoic to Triassic volcanic-sedimentary rocks, Cretaceous-Neogene sedimentary rocks, Miocene felsic tuffs, accompanied by the intrusions of intermediate-acidic intrusive rocks, and salt marshes containing abundant salt cores within the salt lake (Garcia-Valles M et al., 2016). Lithium-rich brines are primarily produced in the 3000 km2 salt lake, with rock salt cores covering an area of 1400 km2. Gruber PW et al. (2011) preliminarily estimated that the Atacama Salt Lake hosts 6.3 Mt of lithium reserves (Fig. 9).
The lithologies around salt lakes primarily include Paleozoic Cambrian crystalline basements in Argentina; Lower and Middle Ordovician metamorphic rocks, metamorphic sedimentary rocks, and volcanic rocks; Mesozoic terrestrial source clastic rocks; Cenozoic sedimentary rocks and volcanic rocks; and Quaternary alluvial fans, lacustrine phases, and salt sediments found near the periphery and within the interior of the salt lakes. In general, numerous Cenozoic intermediate-acidic extrusive rocks are found around salt lake. The lithologies are primarily composed of rhyolite, tuff, and felsic tuff, with minor quantities of dacites, andesites, and basalts (Seggiaro RE, 2013). These rocks have a high concentration of lithium, making them a valuable and abundant source of lithium for salt lakes.
Clayton Valley, Nevada, is a medium-scale canyon in the western United States, with a dry salt basin covering approximately 100 km2 within a 1300 km2 surface convergence area. The elevation rises from 1300 m in the dry salt basin to Piper's Peak at 2880 m in the Silver Peak Range. Late Neoproterozoic to Ordovician carbonate and clastic rocks form the basement rocks, while the upper part consists of late Miocene to Pliocene tuffaceous lacustrine deposits, with tuff and rhyolite as the predominant lithologies. The uppermost part consists of Quaternary alluvial fan, dunes, loose and wet salts, silt, and sand (Fig. 10). The Cenozoic stratigraphy demonstrates the formation of lacustrine facies mud deposits alternating with salts under the climatic influence of alternating periods of abundance and depletion (Kunasz IA, 1974; Davis JR et al., 1986; Price JG et al., 2000; Araoka D et al., 2014; Munk LA et al., 2016; Lowenstein TK et al., 2016, 2017).
Located in a closed basin in eastern California, USA, Sears Lake is a contemporary ephemeral alkaline salt lake with significant deposits of evaporite minerals, including natural alkali and rock salts. Sears Lake is the third of the five lakes recharged by the Owens River. During periods of drought, the Owens River flows into Sears Lake through the Owens and China Lakes and is reduced or lost, contributing to the deposition and accumulation of evaporites (Lowenstein TK et al., 2016). The Sears Lake contains at least two aquifers: an upper aquifer to a depth of 20 m that averages 150×10−6 Li, and a second aquifer beneath a 3‒5 m thick clay layer that contains an average concentration of 60×10−6 Li.
The Salton Sea is a geothermal brine deposit discovered in the 1960s during scientific drilling in southeastern California. The rocks exposed on the surface are primarily Paleozoic metamorphic sedimentary rocks and Pleistocene volcanic rocks. The drilling encountered high-temperature (270‒370°C) hot brines at depths of 1865‒1877 m and 3170 m. These hot brines are rich in K, B, Li, Rb, Cs, and heavy metals such as Fe, Pb, Zn, and Cu (Thompson JM and Fournier RO, 1988). The concentrations of Cu, Zn, and Fe in these brines are dozens to hundreds of times higher than those in salt lake brines, characteristic of geothermal brines originating from deep Rift Valleys. Other salt lakes in North America, such as the Great Salt Lake in the United States, have lithium concentrations of between 100 mg/L and 200 mg/L (Butts D, 1975).
Researchers have also discovered oilfield brines in numerous oilfields. These include the Smackover Formation in the northern Gulf Coast Basin (Collins AG, 1976) and the Beaverhill Lake Formation in Alberta, Canada.
According to Song PS and Xiang RJ (2014), the LiCl reserves in salt lakes on the Tibetan Plateau can reach 23.3 Mt. The main salt lakes are Zabuye, Chagcam Caka, Dangxiong Co, and Eyacuo, with mineralization between 50 g/L and 350 g/L. In the brines, there is a wide range of high-value elements like Li, K, B, Rb, and Cs, and the concentration of lithium ion can range from 50 mg/L to 1500 mg/L. Most salt lakes with a lithium-ion mass concentration of more than 200 mg/L are concentrated near Bangong-Nujiang Suture Zone. Low Mg/Li ratios and high Li concentrations characterize brines in salt lakes, and the brine chemistry type is primarily the carbonate-sulfate type (Zheng MP, 1989; Lian YQ and Guan HZ, 1994; Han FQ, 2001; Zheng MP et al., 2001; Zheng XY et al., 2002; Cao WH and Wu C, 2004; Zhao YY et al., 2005; Liu XF et al., 2007; Song PS and Xiang RJ, 2014; Shi LJ and Wang M, 2019; Li QK et al., 2022).
Carbonate-type salt lakes in Tibet are described by Zabuye and Dangxiong Co as representative salt lakes (Li ZY et al., 2024). Permian clastic rocks, carbonate rocks, Cretaceous volcanic-sedimentary rocks, Paleoproterozoic terrestrial clastic-volcanic rocks, Neoproterozoic volcanic-clastic rocks, Quaternary residual slope products, and fluvial and lacustrine deposits can be observed in the exposed strata around Zabuye Salt Lake (Fig. 11). The salt lake has two parts, with the northern sub-basin being a 98 km2 brine lake containing saturated rock salt. The brine depth is around 0.7‒2 m, and it has a lithium concentration of about 1500×10−6. The southern sub-basin is a semi-arid salt lake, covering an area of approximately 145 km2 (Nie Z et al., 2010). In a borehole drilled in the northern part of the sub-basin to a depth of 84 m, the upper 6 m of the core contained carbonate, sulfate, and borate minerals as well as 1% Li2CO3, indicating a good potential Li resource at depth. The lithium reserve in Zabuye is approximately 1.5 Mt. However, according to the lithium concentration and scale, the lithium reserve in the surface saline lake is only 0.2 Mt. Therefore, it is hypothesized that in addition to the surface saline lake, lithium-rich brines may exist in the shallower part of the lake, which is yet to be confirmed by further work (Gruber PW et al., 2011).
The average lithium concentration of the brines in the Dangxiong Co Salt Lake is 430×10−6. Most of the brines on the Tibetan Plateau are distributed as salt intergranular brines at the surface and in the shallow range of a few meters, whereas some are at depths below a few tens of meters. Within the salt lakes of the Qaidam Basin, there are mostly synclinal deposits within the Paleoproterozoic-Neoproterozoic syngenetic deposits within the anticline, and the lithologies are primarily evaporite deposits of rock salts, sulfates, and borates with local depths of up to 1000 m (Han FQ, 2001).
Underground brine-type lithium deposits have been discovered in the Jianghan Basin in South China (Dai SZ and Fang ZX, 1994; Huang H et al., 2015; Liu CL et al., 2013, 2016, 2017). Brine deposits are distributed in the South China Block, which was formed by the collision of the Yangtze and Cathaysia Blocks during the Neoproterozoic (Shu LS, 2012). During the Cretaceous–Paleogene period, due to the collision and convergence of the Pacific Plate and the Indian Plate on the Eurasian Plate, the South China Block underwent a transformation of the tectonic system from the EW to the NNE-NE direction and the conversion of the extrusion to the extensional stress regime (Ren JS et al., 1980, 1990), and several fracture systems of different grades and scales were formed. Against the background of the aforementioned regional plate tectonic movement, dozens of terrestrial basins developed in southern China (Fig. 4), including the Jianghan, Hengyang, Jitai, Huichang, and Ganzhou basins (Yao QC and Lou JS, 2008; Wang CL et al., 2013a, 2013b). Under the control of an arid climate, a large amount of evaporites, such as gypsum and rock salt, were deposited in the lake basins (Liu Q et al., 1987; Wang CL et al., 2012, 2015, 2018, 2021a, 2021b; Liu CL, 2013; Liu CL et al., 2013, 2016; Ma LC et al., 2015; Shen JJ et al., 2015). Highly mineralized lithium brine deposits have been found in the Jianghan and Jitai Basins in South China (Pan YD et al., 2011; Liu CL, 2013), and the brine is rich in a variety of high-value elements, such as Li, K, B, Rb, Cs, and Sr, which are known as composite deposits (Liu YH and Deng TL, 2006; Liu CL et al., 2016, 2017). Liu et al. (2016, 2021) suggested that a highland ancient salt lake environment may have existed in South China during the Cretaceous-Paleogene period and that an ancient salt lake brine lithium mineralization area was formed.
(1) Jianghan Basin
Geotectonically, the Jianghan Basin is located at the intersection of the northeast-oriented rift system (Neo-Cathaysian Rift System) and the east-west-oriented Central Yangtze Block, accompanied by large-scale volcanic activities. It has experienced multiple tectonic movements, such as fault subsidence-break depression and arête subsidence, which together constitute a fault-slip basin. The main deposits in the basin are the Upper Cretaceous Honghuatao and Yuyang formations; Paleocene Shashi Formation; Neocene Xingouzui, Jingsha, and Qianjiang formations; Oligocene Jinghezhen Formation; Neogene Miocene Guanghuasi Formation; and Quaternary Pleistocene Plain Formation (Fig. 12). Among them, the Shashi, Xingouzui, and Qianjiang formations are primarily salt-lake deposits, corresponding to the two salt-forming cycles in the basin. Lithium-rich deep brines have been found in the lower part of the Shashi and Xingouzui formations of the Jiangling Depression and the Qianjiang Formation of the Qianjiang Depression, which are also rich in K, Rb, Sr, Cs, Br, I, B, and other elements, and have reached the level of industrial and comprehensive utilization, with huge potential resources.
These are typical underground brine-type lithium deposits, which are considerably different from the brine of salt lakes in the plateau in terms of brine occurrence depth and deposit genesis. Brines are generally stored at depths of more than 100 m. For example, the brines in the Jiangling and Qianjiang depressions are primarily stored in volcanic pores, mudstone fissures, and sandstone pores below 3000 m, and no salt lakes developed on the surface. The shallow brine in the Jitai Basin is primarily stored in mudstone fissures and fractures at a depth of more than 200 m below the ground surface. The brines have little connection with the ground and are predominantly influenced by the ancient salt lake environment and subsequent diagenesis.
(2) Jitai Basin
The Jitai Basin is a rhombus half-shaped fault basin controlled by several major faults. The main basin-controlling faults are the northeast-oriented Yongchuan-Xiajiang, Suichuan-Dexing, and Ganjiang faults, followed by the northwest-oriented Jishui Fault (Yu XQ et al., 2005). The basin is also influenced by secondary fractures. From north to south, it is divided into secondary tectonics such as the Ji'an, Zaohe, Gaopi-Meigang low-uplift, and Taihe depressions. Each of these secondary tectonics is further subdivided into additional tectonic structures, such as the Xinwei and Datang depressions. These subdivisions reflect the complex characteristics of the development of the different tectonic phases that have been superimposed on each other in the basin. The brine is primarily deposited in a set of lacustrine sedimentary strata in the third lithological section of the Upper Cretaceous Zhoutian Group. The lithology consists of caesious-banded gypsum-bearing calcareous mudstone interspersed with purplish-red calcareous mudstone and several layers of rock salt. Additionally, it contains more stellate, massive, banded gypsum, and anhydrite.
The geological characteristics of the four basins and the occurrence of brine on the Siberian platform are shown in Figure 8. The Siberian platform contains a thick crystalline base of the Archean-Proterozoic, with quartzite, gneiss, schist, and amphibolite as the main lithologies. These lithologies have a thickness of 2‒3.5 km and can reach up to 5 km. Siberian sedimentary rocks cover the Cambrian-Jurassic rocks, including Cambrian terrestrial carbonate and sulfate. Additionally, there are sedimentary layers of rock salt and other evaporites, as well as evaporite minerals such as gypsum, anhydrite, and halite. The southern and western parts of the terrane include the Angara-Lena, Tunguska, Yakutian ABs, and Olenek AB (Alexeev SV et al., 2020). The Angara-Lena AB geological section contains rock-salt formations with a total thickness of up to 900 m (Vakhromeev AG, 2014) and is divided into lower salt, salt-bearing, and upper salt sections, with the thickness of each section ranging from 500 m to 2500 m. The geological characteristics of Tunguska AB are similar to those of the geological section of Angara-Lena AB, with the difference being the extensive distribution of trap cuts and layered intrusions, and an irregular degree of salinity in the cover. The thickness of the salt layer is only tens of meters, and the brines are primarily found at a depth of 500‒3000 m, mostly in the terrestrial carbonate strata. The upper part consists of Carboniferous and Permian terrestrial carbonate strata, with a thickness ranging from 700 m to 1000 m, containing poor brines, saline brines, and fresh water. In the northern part of the platform (including Olenek AB), the sedimentary cover is mainly composed of terrestrial Cambrian carbonates. At depths greater than 2500 m, there is a Paleozoic crystalline basement. The Cambrian sediments consist of dolomite, tuff, muddy tuff, clayey tuff, and sandstone. Unlike the Siberian Platform, Olenek AB does not have thick rock salt layers.
The brines of the Angara-Lena, Tunguska, and Yakutian in the lower salt and salt-bearing sections were primarily found in the salt-bearing strata of the Upper Proterozoic to Upper Cambrian. The mineralization of the saline sections of the Angara-Lena, Tunguska, and Yakutian ranges from 270 g/L to 631 g/L (average 500 g/L), 80 g/L to 550 g/L (average 380 g/L), and 169.8 g/L to 444.6 g/L (average 404 g/L), respectively. The lithium concentration ranges from 0.21 g/L to 486 mg/L (average 115 mg/L), 0.28 g/L to 837 mg/L (average 243.2 mg/L), and 5.8 mg/L to 90.5 mg/L (average 39.1 mg/L), respectively. Brines in Olenek ABs. brines have abundant non-saline strata and contain two aquifers, of which the Upper Proterozoic and Lower–Middle Cambrian have mineralization of 195.8–411 g/L (mean 328.0 g/L) and Li concentrations of 34.1–415.3 mg/L (mean 183.4 mg/L); the salinity of the Upper Cambrian aquifer ranges from 31.1 g/L to 252.2 g/L (mean 92.0 g/L) and Li concentrations of 3.1–120.8 mg/L (average 33.3 mg/L). Lithium carbonate reserves are predicted to reach 24,200 tons (Alexeev SV et al., 2020).
Alexeev SV et al. (2020) analyzed the correlation of lithium concentrations with depth and salinity in the four regions mentioned above and concluded that there is a significant correlation between Li concentrations and the depth of the saline aquifer only in the Olenek AB basin. In all basins, the correlation between Li concentrations and groundwater TDS was more pronounced; the higher the groundwater salinity, the higher the Li concentration.
Zherebtsova IK and Volkova NN (1966) showed that seawater evaporates at Li concentrations of up to 30 mg/L. In contrast, the concentration of Li is more than ten times higher in natural brines consisting of Na-Ca and Ca chloride ions than in fresh groundwater (Alexeeva LP and Alexeev SV, 2018). Therefore, the presence of lithium in groundwater is attributed to the interaction of the water-rock system during the formation of the present-day brine composition. The general trend of increasing lithium concentrations in brines with a decreasing Na/Cl ratio suggests that water-rock interaction is one of the key mechanisms responsible for the changes in groundwater composition, resulting in lithium enrichment within closed hydrogeological systems.
Lithium-rich brines are found in portions of petroleum reservoirs such as the Smackover (Prather BE et al., 2023), Wyoming (Morgan LA et al., 2022), Oklahoma (Symcox C and Philp RP, 2023), Texas (Williams AK et al., 2017), Arkansas (Chapman CR et al., 1988), and North Dakota oil field brines (Nancy EL et al., 2016), with concentrations up to 700 mg/L (USGS, 2023).
Geothermal spring-type brine accounts for approximately 3% of global lithium resources. It manifests as hydrothermal fluids that are heated through areas of high heat flow. The heated fluids pass through lithium-rich geologic bodies and undergo a water-rock exchange reaction. This reaction leads to the formation of fluids that are rich in lithium, boron, potassium, and other elements. Additionally, it results in the formation of lithium-rich brine deposits in suitable tectonic enclosures within the reservoir body (Tan HB et al., 2015, 2020; Fan QS et al., 2018).
The brines are characterized by abnormally high temperatures and the presence of high thermal anomalies nearby. Examples of such deposits include the Gulu hot springs in the Naqu region of Tibet, the Yangbajing boiling spring water (Dong T et al., 2015), Wairaki in New Zealand, El Tatio in Chile, and Reykanes in Iceland (Ruff SW and Farmer JD, 2016; Antonio Pio R et al., 2022).
Brine-type lithium deposits worldwide are similar and different in terms of their geological features, state of existence, and mineralization mechanisms. In this study, we conducted a systematic investigation and comparison of the distribution of terrestrial brine-type lithium deposits both domestically and abroad. We examibed geological characteristics, geochemical characteristics, mineralization mechanisms, ore controlling factors, and metallogenic regularity. Our main focus was to explore the conditions and models of lithium mineralization in brines found in the salt lakes of the three major plateaus.
The Cordillera Mountain system in North and South America was formed by a subduction collision between the Pacific Plate and the American Plate to form the present plateau landform (Liu CL et al., 2021; Xu ZQ et al., 2021). The intense activity between the oceanic and continental plates caused a significant difference in topographic elevation; In addition to the North American plateau, which is above 1000 m, the elevations of South America and the Tibetan Plateau are above 2000‒3000 m. The Qinghai-Tibet Plateau of China is called the 'roof of the world' because of the strong collision and orogeny between the Indian and Eurasian plates. Strong subduction of oceanic and continental plates, as well as continental plate colliding with continental plate controlled the sedimentary formation of clastic rocks, volcanic rocks, and evaporites in the continental margin (Allmendinger R et al., 1997; Baby P et al., 1997; Zhou XM and Li WX, 2000; McQuarrie N, 2002; Alonso RN et al., 2006). The subduction of the paleo-Pacific plate to the South China continent controlled the formation of deep brine lithium deposits in Jianghan and Jitai basins in South China (Fig.13; Zhou XM et al., 2000). On one hand, the Li-rich volcanic rocks provide a large amount of lithium for brine; deep active structures drive the rise of deep hot springs, which accelerates the water-rock interaction and brings more lithium; on the other hand, the arid evaporation environment enables the continuous enrichment of lithium. Plate activities can cause crust-mantle mixing or melting of crustal materials, resulting in the large-scale formation and upwelling of magmatic materials. The process can bring many metallogenic elements, such as Li, from the Earth's interior, providing a significant amount of lithium for brine deposits. Additionally, the high-altitude blocks and limits the rise of a large amount of water vapor in the surrounding area, leading to higher evaporation rates in the plateau area compared to precipitation. This results in an extremely arid climate, continuous concentration of surface water, and further enrichment of Li and other elements in the water. The strong action of plate tectonics can lead to the development of nearly north-south trending intermontane basins, which are mostly catchment basins and provide a relatively closed reservoir environment for the migration and storage of brine. The large topographic height difference intensifies the weathering of lithium-rich source rocks around the basin by surface and underground water bodies and makes it easier for surface runoff containing lithium to collect into the basin, providing natural metallogenic conditions for the enrichment, migration, and storage of lithium elements (Wang A et al., 2016).
Lithium-rich brine type deposits in Plateau salt lakes are primarily distributed in the tropical arid climate zone from 30° to 40° N latitude and 20° to 30° S latitude. In these areas, there is abundant sunshine, high evaporation, low precipitation, and brine deposits are exposed on the surface and connected to the atmosphere. This makes them more susceptible to the influence of climate.
Information from the Chilean National Water Resources Agency (1987) in South America indicates that the Central Andes of South America is characterized by an arid climate, with drought running from east to west. It is also noted that the Coastal Range and the Central Valley are considered to be the driest in the world, with near-zero precipitation and a potential evaporation of 2500 mm/year.
The annual precipitation in the northern part of the Tibetan Plateau is 121 mm, and evaporation is 2423 mm (Zhao YY, 2003). The average annual evaporation (2302 mm) to precipitation (151 mm) ratio of Chagcam caka Salt Lake is 15.4∶1 (Zhao YY, 2003). The Yiliping Salt Lake area in the Qaidam Basin has scant rainfall, with an annual precipitation of 25 mm; however, evaporation reaches more than 3,000 mm, and large quantities of salt minerals, such as rock salt, gypsum, sylvite, halite and picromerite, are deposited in the lake (Li BT et al., 2012). The ratio of evaporation to precipitation in the Qarhan Salt Lake area is (3456 mm: 28.1 mm) 123∶1 (Zheng MP, 1989).
At the end of the Mesozoic era, the Paleo-pacific plate subducted beneath the Asian continent, resulting in the formation of a paleo-plateau landform or high coastal mountains in South China. This geological process led to an arid climate (Chen PJ, 2000). An arid climate is a crucial factor in promoting lithium enrichment and eventual mineralization in brine deposits (Tong GB et al., 2002). For instance, in South China, the Jiangling and Qianjiang depressions in the Jianghan Basin have accumulated significant amounts of rock salt and gypsum deposits (Wang CL et al., 2012, 2013a). Additionally, the Jitai Basin exhibits rhythmic interbedding of gypsum rocks and lacustrine clastic sedimentary rocks, indicating a paleo-saline depositional environment influenced by the arid climatic conditions of that time. This suggests that the arid climate played a significant role in lithium enrichment.
The results of evaporation and precipitation of the three plateau salt lakes are shown in Table 6. It can be seen that the precipitation ranges from 25 mm/y to 320 mm/y, with an average of 117.32 mm/y; the evaporation ranges from 783 mm/y to 3500 mm/y, with an average of 1825.88 mm/y; the average value of evaporation is 30 times greater than the precipitation (Table 6), showing that the plateau salt lake is generally in an extremely arid climate environment.
Throughout the world, the distribution of Li deposits in terrestrial brines is associated with extremely arid climates, which are particularly evident in the surface saline lakes of South America, North America, and the Tibetan Plateau. The extremely arid conditions unique to the plateau increase the Li concentrations in shallow surface brines by two to three orders of magnitude compared to the values measured in major tributaries and hot water discharges. López Steinmetz RL and Salvi S (2021) studied 12 salt lakes in the southern part of the Puna Plateau, South America, and found a good correlation between Li concentration and TDS, suggesting that older basins have more time to store evaporation products than younger basins and that sustained evaporation has resulted in the effective enrichment of a variety of elements, including Li. In the absence of external water recharge or where recharge cannot compensate for the intensity of evaporation, the lithium in the brine continues to concentrate and enrich, and the longer the evaporation time, the greater the degree of lithium enrichment.
The lithium-rich brines in South China are all stored in the pores and fissures accompanying the salt rocks, and the paleoclimate at that time was presumed to be arid based on rock-salt inclusions and sporadic pollen (Li HN et al. 2015). Therefore, an arid to extremely arid climate plays an important role in the formation of lithium-rich brines, both in terms of plateau saline lake-type lithium brine deposits and deep underground brine-type lithium mines.
Lithium in terrestrial brines comes from a variety of sources. A comprehensive analysis of the geological characteristics of these brine deposits suggests that the surrounding rocks of the brines in the basin contain high lithium concentration, which may provide abundant lithium supply to the water body within the basin under internal and external geological processes.
Various lithium-rich rocks are important sources of lithium in brine. For example, the Li concentration of rhyolite glass in the Macusani region of Bolivia, South America, is as high as 3400 × 10−6. Lacustrine sediments of the Late Miocene to Pliocene tuffs in Clayton Valley, North America, contain as much as 1300 × 10−6 of Li, with an average of 100 × 10−6 (Kunasz IA, 1974). Hofstrta AH et al. (2013) studied siliceous melt inclusions in siliciclastic volcanic rocks in the western United States and concluded that these melt inclusions provided evidence of lithium enrichment prior to extreme eruptions and depletion after eruptions, which is important for determining the origin of lithium-rich brines.
Lithium anomalies in rivers or hot springs can carry lithium into lake basins. The lithium concentration of boiling water ejected from the Gulu hot spring in Nagqu, Tibet is 10.4 mg/L, and that of boiling water from Yangbajain is 8.5 mg/L, which is one to several orders of magnitude higher than natural water (Mou BL, 1999), suggesting that lithium-rich geothermal fluids in the deep of the earth can be carried to the upper crust and ultimately recharged to the lake through the river drainage. Yu JJ et al. (2013) suggested that the lithium deposit in brines of salt lakes such as Yiliping in the Qaidam Basin is formed by evaporation and concentration of lithium-rich river recharged to the salt lake, and the average lithium concentration of the river water is 0.4 mg/L. The upper part of the river is replenished by warm springs rising along faults in the geothermal field.
The water-rock interaction between surface low temperature fluid and underground high-temperature fluid with rocks plays a crucial role in the initiation, migration, and storage of lithium. Large amounts of lithium can be released into fluids from rocks. Davis JR et al. (1986) argued that Tertiary volcanism can provide heat and reactive materials for water-rock interactions. They also stated that condensed volcanic glass is widely developed in tuffaceous sandstones and shales. When unstable materials such as volcanic glass are prone to water-rock interactions, anomalously high lithium concentrations (up to 120 × 10−6) are formed. Therefore, it is believed that volcanic rocks and other rocks since the Tertiary have provided an important source of lithium material for brines through water-rock reactions. Araoka D et al. (2014) investigated the lithium and strontium isotopes of brines in the Clayton Valley and concluded that lithium may have two possible sources, either from prolonged chemical weathering of the surrounding rocks, providing lithium to the surface water, or from hydrothermal activity between various fluids and the surrounding volcanic rocks. The formation of lithium-rich brines in the Puna Salt Lake group in Argentina is associated with the contribution of hot water and weathering of lithium-bearing rocks (Lopez-Steinmetz RL et al., 2018).
By comparing the correlation between Mg/Li ratios and lithium concentrations in terrestrial brines worldwide (Fig. 14), it is found that the Mg/Li ratios in the brines of the South American Plateau, the North American Plateau and the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau are significantly negatively correlated with Li concentration, while the two are significantly positively correlated with the brines of the Jiangling depression and Qianjiang depression in the Jianghan Basin and the Jitai Basin in South China. It shows that lithium ions are continuously enriched in the brine of plateau salt lakes during evaporation, while the change range of magnesium is smaller than that of lithium. In addition to the continuous enrichment of lithium, Mg ion concentration in underground brines in South China has increased significantly, which suggests that the chemical composition of brines is affected by water-rock interaction or other geochemical processes.
This study collected data on lithium isotopes, lithium content in surrounding rocks of brines, lithium concentration in most terrestrial brines, rivers, and hot and cold springs that supply brines worldwide. The correlation between δ7Li and Li content (concentration) was analyzed on this data (Fig. 15). The lithium content of the surrounding rocks of salt lakes in South America, North America, and the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau is generally high, with some reaching 1000×10−6. δ7Li values are also low and below 13‰ (Fig. 15a). The concentration of lithium in rivers and hot and cold springs is mostly below 10mg/L, with some values approaching 110mg/L. The δ7Li values in the water bodies of the South American Plateau and Tibet are below 17‰, while the variation range of δ7Li in the Qaidam Basin is wide, ranging from 4‰ to 40‰. This reflects the strong fractionation of lithium isotopes in the rivers and hot and cold springs in the Qaidam Basin. The δ7Li values are more influenced by atmospheric precipitation or other geochemical processes (Fig. 15b). In addition to the generally high lithium concentration of brine worldwide, the relationship between δ7Li and Li concentration is similar to that of rivers, hot and cold springs that feed brine (Fig. 15c). In other words, the low δ7Li of brines of salt lakes in South America, North America and the Tibet plateau reflects that they have similar provenances or geological processes. The formation of brine lithium ore is more affected by the interaction of water and rock at high temperature, and the degree of lithium isotope fractionation decreases under high temperature conditions. Meanwhile, the large variation range of δ7Li in the Qaidam Basin in Qinghai Province, and the Jianghan and Jitai basins in South China, suggests that they have undergone different geochemical processes. In general, it reflects the contribution of surrounding rocks around the basin to the lithium of the brine. Low temperature weathering and high temperature water-rock interaction are important mechanisms for the release of lithium from rocks. Additionally, river and spring water serve as significant carriers for the migration of lithium.
Munk LA and Chamberlain CP (2011) concluded that the genesis of lithium-rich brines in Clayton, Nevada was caused by (1) lithium leaching from lithium-rich rhyolites, (2) pooling and evaporative concentration in a dry saline lake, and (3) evolution of the brines through mixing and water-rock interaction in the subsurface. Hofstra AH et al. (2013) summarized and proposed a model for the formation of lithium brines and lithium-rich clays in the Clayton Valley, U.S., and lithium was filtered into the salt lake through evaporation and concentrated to form a lithium brine ore. Bradley D et al. (2013) have also proposed a preliminary model for lithium brine. They suggest that certain conditions must be met for lithium brine deposits to form. These include: (1) an arid climate, (2) closed basins with dry saline lakes, (3) tectonic faults, (4) concomitant mountain or geothermal activity, (5) suitable lithium source rocks, (6) one or more aquifers, and (7) sufficient time for evaporation and concentration. Lithium brine mineralization is primarily due to evaporation and the interaction between thermal fluids and aquifers. Godfrey LV et al. (2013) suggested that climate has an important influence on lithium brine enrichment in saline lakes. Specifically, the arid effect of the high altitude of the Central Andes has led to rapid enrichment of lithium brine. Munk LA et al. (2016) summarized the characteristics of lithium brine mineralization in 18 saline lakes worldwide and concluded that the factors controlling brine mineralization include (1) arid climate, (2) closed basins containing saline lakes, (3) igneous or geothermal activity, (4) tectonically controlled subsidence, (5) source of lithium material, and (6) the need for ample time to concentrate the brine.
Brine-type lithium deposits in salt lakes are primarily distributed in plate subduction zones. The sub-basin tectonics formed under the control of the regional plate movement mechanism provide conditions for the surface runoff transport of lithium-containing fluids to converge, while also undergoing tectonic subsidence and part of the fracture closure in the interior and margins of the basin (Jordan TE et al., 2002), which plays a very important role in storing and preventing the leakage of lithium-bearing brine. The activities of warm and hot springs brought lithium recharge to the salt lake, and the evaporation effect formed lithium-rich brines.
Liu CL et al. (2021) outlined that ocean-continental plates subduction and continental-continental plates collision led to the occurrence of brine-type lithium mineralization in salt lake (Fig. 16). The orogenic effect formed plateau landforms and mountain basins, which in turn triggered an arid climate. South China is located in the western Pacific tectonic belt, due to the subduction of the ancient Pacific plate and the formation of coastal mountain ranges. This resulted in the South China Cretaceous-Palaeogene arid climate, which when coupled with igneous activities transporting a large number of lithium-forming materials, may have contributed to the presence of lithium in brine. Lithium in brine may originate from the weathering of lithium-rich granite and other rocks around the basin or from the leaching of the water-rock interaction of basalt and other rocks at depth. Controlled by the extremely arid climate of South China during the Cenozoic, lithium may have been further enriched in the later burial process, forming lithium-rich brine deposits in favorable reservoirs.
The formation process of lithium brine deposits is summarized as follows: macro-scale oceanic-continental subduction and continental-continental collision caused by the mantle wedge or mantle and crustal material melting, upward magma fluid invasion, the formation of lithium-rich intrusive rock bodies such as granites or surface distribution of rhyolite and basalt and other eruptive rocks in plateau areas or the interior of the basin. When weathering or underground anomalous geothermal fluid passes through these lithium-rich rocks, through water-rock interaction, the fluid leaches lithium from some of the rocks at depth, high heat and high pressure, or topographic elevation caused by the gravitational potential energy driven by the convergence of the secondary basin ridge tectonics or the low-lying areas of the faulted (sunken) basin. The high elevation of the plateau blocks the entry of water vapor and causes the rain shadow effect, resulting in an extremely arid climate, with higher evaporation than precipitation (Fig. 17). Additionally, source rock weathering and leaching, as well as the participation of external fluids in the exchange of evaporated rock dissolution, and clay and other minerals adsorption maintain the dynamic stability of the brine. Under the same conditions, the Li in the brine inevitably becomes further concentrated and enriched. As the brine becomes more concentrated, large amounts of gypsum, glauberite, rock salt, and other salt rock minerals reach saturation, leading to crystallization and precipitation. The general metallogenic model is shown in Figure 18 (Bradley D et al., 2013). Lithium is ultimately enriched in rock salt crystals or terminal brines, forming three major plateau-type salt-lake brine lithium deposits. When the salt brine is buried by later deposition, the rock-forming effect transforms into ancient salt lake deposits through the dissolution of rock salt, releasing a large amount of Li into the ancient brine. Thus, storage occurs in the cracks, pores, volcanic pores, or through other changes in the reservoir body, and forms underground brine-type lithium deposits, for which the Jianghan Basin and the Jitai Basins are the best examples. Localized deep underground thermal anomalies can include a large amount of lithium and, at the same time, can accelerate the extraction of lithium in the surrounding rock, increase the lithium concentrations, and may cause the Salton Sea’s high thermal anomaly brine.
(i) The terrestrial lithium brine deposits worldwide primarily occur in plateau salt lakes, underground brine (oil field brine), and geothermal springs; the former two types are primarily exploited. Lithium brine deposits in salt lakes are primarily distributed in the Andean Plateau in South America, the Western Plateau of North America, and the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau in China. The LiCl resources are approximately 20.76 Mt, 2.3 Mt, and 23.3 Mt, respectively. Underground brine type lithium deposits are primarily distributed in the Jiangling and Qianjiang depressions of Jianghan Basin in South China (lithium resources 5.21 Mt) and Russia’s Siberian Plateau.
(ii) The mineralization of terrestrial brine-type lithium deposits is controlled by structure, provenance and arid climate. Brine-type lithium mineralization in salt lakes occurs under specific conditions. The world’s three major plateaus are formed by oceanic-continental plate subduction and/or continental-continental collision, which results in the plateau geomorphology blocking the oceanic air currents from reaching the plateau interior. This formation creates an arid climate in the interior of the plateau, where the amount of evaporation is far greater than the amount of precipitation, allowing the development of numerous salt lakes. Additionally, plate subduction and collision, along with by magma intrusion, volcanic eruption, surface hot springs, and other hydrothermal liquids, carry a large amount of lithium and other mineralized substances into the salt lake. through continuous evaporation, lithium is continuously enriched and mineralized.
(iii) The Mg/Li ratios are negatively correlated with the concentrations of lithium in the brine of the plateau salt lakes but positively correlated with the concentrations of lithium in the underground brine, indicating that the two types of terrestrial brines have undergone different geochemical evolution processes. Surrounding rock, river water, spring water, etc., are the main sources of lithium in brine, and water-rock interaction is an important mechanism of lithium release from rocks, which can be answered from the relationship between lithium isotopes and lithium concentration (or content) in South America, North America, Qinghai-Tibet Plateau and South China.
(iv) The conditions and processes of underground brine lithium mineralization are that after the ancient salt lake brine and the formation of rock layers, water-rock interaction occurs between the brine and the lithium-rich surrounding rocks, and more lithium is dissolved into the fluid, while the rift environment or the high thermal anomaly of deep magma can further accelerate the water-rock interaction, and with the dissolution and release of lithium by buried rock salt, lithium deposits are formed in the deep brine of favorable reservoirs.
(v) Brine lithium deposits in Plateau salt lakes are large in reserve scale and high in Li grade, and are currently the main type of resource exploration and mining utilization. With the successive discovery of underground brine-type lithium deposits, this type of lithium deposit has attracted more attention, and its further study has important theoretical and practical significance. The two different types of brine lithium deposits have different deposit genesis and mineralization mechanisms, and their exploratory activities should be emphasized in the future.
Supplementary data (Tables. 1–6) to this article can be found online at doi: 10.31035/CG20230128.
Chenglin Liu and Dianhe Liu conceived of the presented idea. All authors discussed the results and contributed to the final manuscript.
The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
This study was jointly supported by Central Welfare Basic Scientific Research Business Expenses (KK2005, YYWF201607), the Editor of China Geology, Ruiqin Li, and many thanks for a nice review by anonymous reviewers.
Alekseeva LP, Alekseev SV. 2018. Geochemistry of ground ice, saline groundwater, and brines in the cryoartesian basins of the northeastern Siberian Platform. Russian Geology and Geophysics, 59(2), 144–156. doi: 10.1016/j.rgg.2018.01.012.
|
Alexeev SV, Alexeeva LP, Borisov VN, Shouakar-Stash O, Frape SK, Chabaux F, Kononov AM. 2007. Isotopic composition (H, O, Cl, Sr) of ground brines of the Siberian Platform. Russian Geology and Geophysics, 48(3), 225–236. doi: 10.1016/j.rgg.2007.02.007.
|
Alexeev SV, Alexeeva LP, Vakhromeev AG. 2020. Brines of the Siberian platform (Russia): Geochemistry and processing prospects. Applied Geochemistry, 117, 104588. doi: 10.1016/j.apgeochem.2020.104588.
|
Allmendinger RW, Jordan TE, Kay SM, Isacks BL. 1997. The evolution of the altiplano-puna plateau of the central Andes. Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences, 25, 139–174. doi: 10.1146/annurev.earth.25.1.139.
|
Alonso RN, Bookhagen B, Carrapa B, Coutand I, Haschke M, Hilley GE, Schoenbohm L, Sobel ER, Strecker MR, Trauth MH, Villanueva A. 2006. Tectonics, climate, and landscape evolution of the southern central Andes: The Argentine puna plateau and adjacent regions between 22 and 30°S. The Andes. Frontiers in Earth Sciences. Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 265–283. doi: 10.1007/978-3-540-48684-8_12.
|
Antonio Pio R, Ritz, Vanille R, Shyam N, Raymi C, Dimitrios K, Stefan W. 2022. Modelling injection induced seismicity in the Hengill geothermal field. EGU General Assembly Conference Abstracts, doi: 10.5194/egusphere-egu22-10392.
|
Araoka D, Kawahata H, Takagi T, Watanabe Y, Nishimura K, Nishio Y. 2014. Lithium and strontium isotopic systematics in playas in Nevada, USA: Constraints on the origin of lithium. Mineralium Deposita, 49, 371–379. doi: 10.1007/s00126-013-0495-y.
|
Baby P, Rochat P, Mascle G, Hérail G. 1997. Neogene shortening contribution to crustal thickening in the back arc of the Central Andes. Geology, 25(10), 883. doi: 10.1130/0091-7613(1997)025<0883:nsctct>2.3.CO;2.
|
Bai YM, Wang XL, Yang LC, Wang ZT, Ye CY. 2018. Hydrochemical characteristics of Duoxiu Lake and Yanhu Lake in northeastern hoh xil region, Qinghai. Journal of Salt Lake Research, 26(2), 27–33 (in Chinese with English abstract).
|
Benson TR, Coble MA, Rytuba JJ, Mahood GA. 2017. Lithium enrichment in intracontinental rhyolite magmas leads to Li deposits in caldera basins. Nature Communications, 8(1), 270. doi: 10.1038/s41467-017-00234-y.
|
Birkle P, García BM, Milland Padrón CM. 2009. Origin and evolution of formation water at the jujo–tecominoacán oil reservoir, gulf of Mexico. part 1: Chemical evolution and water–rock interaction. Applied Geochemistry, 24(4), 543–554. doi: 10.1016/j.apgeochem.2008.12.009.
|
Bottomley DJ, Chan LH, Katz A, Starinsky A, Clark ID. 2003. Lithium isotope geochemistry and origin of Canadian shield brines. Ground Water, 41(6), 847–856. doi: 10.1111/j.1745-6584.2003.tb02426.x.
|
Bradley D, Munk L, Jochens H, Hynek S, Labay K. 2013. A preliminary deposit model for lithium brines. USGS professional paper, (1006), 1–6, doi: 10.3133/ofr20131006.
|
Butts D. 1975. Recovery of minerals from the Great Salt Lake. Abstracts with Programs -Geological Society of America, 7, 1016.
|
Cao WH, Wu C. 2004. Brine resources and their comprehensive utilization technology. Beijing, Geology Press, 1‒316 (in Chinese with English abstract).
|
Chan LH, Edmond JM, Thompson G. 1993. A lithium isotope study of hot springs and metabasalts from Mid-Ocean Ridge Hydrothermal Systems. Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth, 98(B6), 9653–9659. doi: 10.1029/92jb00840.
|
Chapman CR, Kwang JA, Wright AE. 1988. Oil and Gas Developments in Arkansas, North Louisiana, and East Texas in 1987, AAPG Bulletin, 72(10B), 41‒45, doi: 10.1306/703C9A37-1707-11D7-8645000102C1865D.
|
Chen PJ. 2000. Paleoenvironmental changes during the Cretaceous in Eastern China. Developments in Palaeontology and Stratigraphy, 17, 81–90. doi: 10.1016/S0920-5446(00)80025-4.
|
Coffey DM, Munk LA, Ibarra DE, Butler KL, Boutt DF, Jenckes J. 2021. Lithium storage and release from lacustrine sediments: Implications for lithium enrichment and sustainability in continental brines. Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems, 22(12), e2021GC009916. doi: 10.1029/2021GC009916.
|
Cortecci G, Boschetti T, Mussi M, Lameli CH, Mucchino C, Barbieri M. 2005. New chemical and original isotopic data on waters from El Tatio geothermal field, northern Chile. Geochemical Journal, 39(6), 547–571. doi: 10.2343/geochemj.39.547.
|
Dai SZ, Fang ZX. 1994. Petroleum geological characteristics and exploration of salt Lake basin in Jianghan fault depression. Jianghan Petroleum Science and Technology, 4(2), 1–7 (in Chinese).
|
Davis JR, Friedman I, Gleason JD. 1986. Origin of the lithium-rich brine, Clayton Valley, Nevada: U. S. Geological Survey Bulletin, 1622, 131–138.
|
Dong T, Tan HB, Zhang WJ, Zhang YF. 2015. Geochemical distribution of lithium in saline lakes in Tibet. Journal of Hohai University (Natural Sciences), 43(3), 230–235 (in Chinese with English abstract). doi: 10.3876/j.issn.1000-1980.2015.03.007.
|
Ejeian M, Grant A, Shon HK, Razmjou A, 2021. Is Lithium brine water? Desalination, 518 (2021) 115169, 1–6. doi: 10.1016/j.desal.2021.115169.
|
Ericksen GE, Salas R. 1977. Geology and resources of salars in the Central Andes: U. S. Geologial Survey, Open File Repository, 88‒210, doi: 10.3133/ofr88210.
|
Fan QS, Lowenstein TK, Wei HC, Yuan Q, Qin ZJ, Shan FS, Ma HZ. 2018. Sr isotope and major ion compositional evidence for formation of Qarhan Salt Lake, Western China. Chemical Geology, 497, 128–145. doi: 10.1016/j.chemgeo.2018.09.001.
|
Fei GC, Yang Z, Yang JY, Luo W, Deng Y, Lai YT, Tao XX, Zheng L, Tang WC, Li J. 2020. New precise timing constraint for the Dangba granitic pegmatite type rare-metal deposit, Markam, Sichuan Province, evidence from cassiterite LA-MC-ICP-MS U-Pb dating. Acta Geologica Sinica, 94(3), 836–849 (in Chinese with English abstract). doi: 10.19762/j.cnki.dizhixuebao.2020137.
|
Fu LL. 2017. Study on The Source of Lithium in The Cretaceous Lithium Rich Brine Deposit in Jitai Basin. Shijiazhuang, Hebei GEO University, Master thesis, 1–63 (in Chinese with English abstract).
|
Gan YQ, Wang YX, Duan YH, Deng YM, Guo XX, Ding XF. 2014. Hydrogeochemistry and arsenic contamination of groundwater in the Jianghan Plain, central China. Journal of Geochemical Exploration, 138, 81–93. doi: 10.1016/j.gexplo.2013.12.013.
|
Gao CL, Yu JQ, Min XY, Cheng AY, Zhang LS. 2020. Distribution characteristics and controlling factors of lithium brine deposits in the world. Journal of Salt Lake Research, 28(4), 48–55 (in Chinese with English abstract). doi: 10.12119/j.yhyj.202004006.
|
Garcia MG, Borda LG, Godfrey LV, López Steinmetz RL, Losada-Calderon A. 2020. Characterization of lithium cycling in the Salar De Olaroz, Central Andes, using a geochemical and isotopic approach. Chemical Geology, 531, 119340. doi: 10.1016/j.chemgeo.2019.119340.
|
Garcia-Valles M, Alfonso P, Arancibia JRH, Martínez S, Parcerisa D. 2016. Mineralogical and thermal characterization of borate minerals from Rio Grande deposit, Uyuni (Bolivia). Journal of Thermal Analysis and Calorimetry, 125(2), 673–679. doi: 10.1007/s10973-015-5161-4.
|
Garrett DE. 2004. Handbook of Lithium and Natural Calcium Chloride: Their Deposits, Processing, Uses and Properties. Elsevier Academic Press, 651, doi: 10.1016/B978-0-12-276152-2.X5035-X.
|
Glanzman RK, McCarthy JH Jr, Rytuba JJ. 1978. Lithium in the McDermitt caldera, Nevada and Oregon. Energy, 3(3), 347–353. doi: 10.1016/0360-5442(78)90031-2.
|
Godfrey LV, Chan LH, Alonso RN, Lowenstein TK, McDonough WF, Houston J, Li J, Bobst A, Jordan TE. 2013. The role of climate in the accumulation of lithium-rich brine in the Central Andes. Applied Geochemistry, 38, 92–102. doi: 10.1016/j.apgeochem.2013.09.002.
|
Godfrey LV, Herrera C, Gamboa C, Mathur R. 2019. Chemical and isotopic evolution of groundwater through the active Andean arc of Northern Chile. Chemical Geology, 518, 32–44. doi: 10.1016/j.chemgeo.2019.04.011.
|
Gruber PW, Medina PA, Keoleian GA, Kesler SE, Everson MP, Wallington TJ. 2011. Global lithium availability. Journal of Industrial Ecology, 15(5), 760–775. doi: 10.1111/j.1530-9290.2011.00359.x.
|
Han FQ. 2001. The geochemistry of lithium in salt lake on Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau. Journal of Salt Lake Research, 9(1), 55–61 (in Chinese with English abstract).
|
Han JB. 2018. Migration and enrichment of highly concentrated uranium in the hydrologic system of Gasikule Salt Lake Basin. Wuhan: China University of Geosciences (Wuhan).
|
He L, Han FQ, Han WX, Yan JP, Li BK, Han YZ, Nian XQ, Chen YJ, Han JL. 2015. Hydrochemical characteristics of lexiewudan lake in hoh xil, Qinghai. Journal of Salt Lake Research, 23(2), 28–33 (in Chinese with English abstract).
|
He MY, Luo CG, Yang HJ, Kong FC, Li YL, Deng L, Zhang XY, Yang KY. 2020. Sources and a proposal for comprehensive exploitation of lithium brine deposits in the Qaidam Basin on the northern Tibetan Plateau, China: Evidence from Li isotopes. Ore Geology Reviews, 117, 103277. doi: 10.1016/j.oregeorev.2019.103277.
|
Hofstra AH, Todorov TI, Mercer CN, Adams DT, Marsh EE. 2013. Silicate melt inclusion evidence for extreme pre-eruptive enrichment and post-eruptive depletion of lithium in silicic volcanic rocks of the western United States: Implications for the origin of lithium-rich brines. Economic Geology, 108(7), 1691–1701. doi: 10.2113/econgeo.108.7.1691.
|
Huang H, Zhang SW, Zhang LY. 2015. Mineral characteristics and resources assessment of the deep brine in Qianjiang formation, Jianghan depression. Journal of Salt Lake Research, 23(2), 34–43 (in Chinese with English abstract).
|
Huang JL, Zhao DP. 2006. High-resolution mantle tomography of China and surrounding regions. Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth, 111(B9), B09305. doi: 10.1029/2005jb004066.
|
Huh Y, Chan LH, Zhang L, Edmond JM. 1998. Lithium and its isotopes in major world rivers: Implications for weathering and the oceanic budget. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 62(12), 2039–2051. doi: 10.1016/S0016-7037(98)00126-4.
|
Institute of Mineral Resources, Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences. 2011. Annual report of survey and evaluation of potassium-rich Tertiary brine in Jiangling Salt Basin. Institute of Mineral Resources, Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences, Beijing. (in Chinese).
|
Institute of Mineral Resources, Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences. 2013. Evaluation report of potassium chloride resources in deep potassium-rich brine in middle and southern Jiangling Depression. Beijing. Institute of Mineral Resources, Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences (in Chinese).
|
James RH, Palmer MR. 2000. The lithium isotope composition of international rock standards. Chemical Geology, 166(3–4), 319–326. doi: 10.1016/S0009-2541(99)00217-X.
|
Jordan TE, Muñoz N, Hein M, Lowenstein T, Godfrey L, Yu J. 2002. Active faulting and folding without topographic expression in an evaporite basin, Chile. Geological Society of America Bulletin, 114(11), 1406–1421. doi: 10.1130/0016-7606(2002)114<1406:afafwt>2.0.co;2.
|
Kampf SK, Tyler SW, Ortiz CA, Muñoz JF, Adkins PL. 2005. Evaporation and land surface energy budget at the Salar de Atacama, Northern Chile. Journal of Hydrology, 310(1–4), 236–252. doi: 10.1016/j.jhydrol.2005.01.005.
|
Kasemann SA, Meixner A, Erzinger J, Viramonte JG, Alonso RN, Franz G. 2004. Boron isotope composition of geothermal fluids and borate minerals from salar deposits (central Andes/NW Argentina). Journal of South American Earth Sciences, 16(8), 685–697. doi: 10.1016/j.jsames.2003.12.004.
|
Kavanagh L, Keohane J, Garcia Cabellos G, Lloyd A, Cleary J. 2018. Global lithium sources–Industrial use and future in the electric vehicle industry: A review. Resources, 7(3), 57. doi: 10.3390/resources7030057.
|
Kay SM, Coira B, Viramonte J. 1994. Young mafic back arc volcanic rocks as indicators of continental lithospheric delamination beneath the Argentine Puna Plateau, central Andes. Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth, 99(B12), 24323–24339. doi: 10.1029/94jb00896.
|
Kesler SE, Gruber PW, Medina PA, Keoleian GA, Everson MP, Wallington TJ. 2012. Global lithium resources: Relative importance of pegmatite, brine and other deposits. Ore Geology Reviews, 48, 55–69. doi: 10.1016/j.oregeorev.2012.05.006.
|
Kunasz IA. 1974. Lithium occurrence in the brines of Clayton Valley Esmeralda County, Nevada. Fourth Symposium on Salt 1, 57‒66.
|
Li BT, Zhao YY, Ye R, Hao AB, Wang SJ, Jiao PC. 2012. Composition in solid potash deposits of qarhan salt lake, Qinghai Province and its significance. Geoscience, 26(1), 71–84 (in Chinese with English abstract). doi: 10.3969/j.issn.1000-8527.2012.01.008.
|
Li HM, Cheng HD, Zhang QY. 2004. Evaluation of the technologies of comprehensive utilizationand exploitation brine resources. Journal of Salt Lake Research, 12(1), 62–72,56 (in Chinese with English abstract).
|
Li HN, Wang CL, Liu CL, Yang SG, Xu HM, Hu HB, Yu XC, Liu JL. 2015. Paleotemperatures of early Eocene in the Jiangling Depression: Evidence from fluid inclusions in thenardite. Acta Geologica Sinica, 89(11), 2019–2027 (in Chinese with English abstract). doi: 10.19762/j.cnki.dizhixuebao.2015.11.012.
|
Li QK, Shan FS, Wang JP, Fan QS, Yuan Q, Qin ZJ. 2022. The variation of K contents in salt lakes on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau and its influencing factors. Journal of Salt Lake Research, 30(2), 79–85 (in Chinese with English abstract). doi: 10.12119/j.yhyj.202202009.
|
Li RQ, Liu CL, Chen X, Chen YZ, Wang CL. 2013. Salting law by cooling deep potassium-bearing brine in Jiangling depression. Journal of Salt Lake Research, 21(1), 1–6 (in Chinese with English abstract).
|
Li ZY, He MY, Li BK, Wen XQ, Zhou JD, Cheng YY, Zhang N, Deng L. 2024. Multi-isotopic composition (Li and B isotopes) and hydrochemistry characterization of the Lakko Co Li-rich salt lake in Tibet, China: Origin and hydrological processes. Journal of Hydrology, 630, 130714. doi: 10.1016/j.jhydrol.2024.130714.
|
Lian YQ, Guan HZ. 1994. The discovery and significance of boron deposit in Mami Salt Lake, Xizang Province. Geology of Tibet, 2(12), 170–178 (in Chinese with English abstract).
|
Ling Y, Zheng MP, Sun Q, Dai XQ. 2017. Last deglacial climatic variability in Tibetan Plateau as inferred from n-alkanes in a sediment core from Lake Zabuye. Quaternary International, 454, 15–24. doi: 10.1016/j.quaint.2017.08.030.
|
Liu CL. 2013. Characteristics and formation of potash deposits in continental rift basins: A review. Acta Geoscientica Sinica, 34(5), 515–527 (in Chinese with English abstract). doi: 10.3975/cagsb.2013.05.02.
|
Liu CL, Wang CL, Xu HM, Liu BK, Shen LJ, Wang LC, Zhao YJ. 2013. Research progress of potassium salt minerals in Paleogene evaporite in Jiangling Depression. Mineral Deposits, 32(1), 221–222 (in Chinese). doi: 10.16111/j.0258-7106.2013.01.017.
|
Liu CL, Yu XC, Yuan XY, Li RQ, Yao FJ, Shen LJ, Li Q, Zhao YY. 2021. Characteristics, distribution regularity and formation model of brine-type Li deposits in salt lakes in the world. Acta Geologica Sinica, 95(7), 2009–2029 (in Chinese with English abstract). doi: 10.19762/j.cnki.dizhixuebao.2021230.
|
Liu CL, Yu XC, Zhao YJ, Wang JY, Wang LC, Xu HM, Li J, Wang CL. 2016. A tentative discussion on regional metallogenic background and mineralization mechanism of subterranean brines rich in potassium and lithium in South China Block. Mineral Deposits, 35(6), 1119–1143 (in Chinese with English abstract). doi: 10.16111/j.0258-7106.2016.06.001.
|
Liu LJ, Wang DH, Liu XF, Li JK, Dai HZ, Yan WD. 2017. The main types, distribution features and present situation of exploration and development for domestic and foreign lithium mine. Geology in China, 44(2), 263–278 (in Chinese with English abstract). doi: 10.12029/gc20170204.
|
Liu Q, Chen YH, Li YC, Lan QC, Yuan HR, Yan DL. 1987. Middle and Cenozoic terrigenous clastic chemical rock type salt deposits in China. Beijing: Science and Technology Press.
|
Liu XF, Zheng MP, Qi W. 2007. Sources of ore-forming materials of the superlarge B and Li deposit in Zabuye salt lake, Tibet, China. Acta Geologica Sinica, 81(12), 1709–1715 (in Chinese with English abstract).
|
Liu YH, Deng TL. 2006. Progresses on the Process and Technique of Lithium Recovery from Salt Lake Brines Around the World, World Sci-tech R and D, 28(5), 69‒75 (in Chinese with English abstract), doi: 10.1016/S0379-4172(06)60108-X.
|
López Steinmetz RL, Salvi S. 2021. Brine grades in Andean salars: When basin size matters A review of the lithium triangle. Earth-Science Reviews, 217, 103615. doi: 10.1016/j.earscirev.2021.103615.
|
López Steinmetz RL, Salvi S, García MG, Peralta Arnold Y, Béziat D, Franco G, Constantini O, Córdoba FE, Caffe PJ. 2018. Northern Puna Plateau-scale survey of Li brine-type deposits in the Andes of NW Argentina. Journal of Geochemical Exploration, 190, 26–38. doi: 10.1016/j.gexplo.2018.02.013.
|
López Steinmetz RL, Salvi S, Sarchi C, Santamans C, López Steinmetz LC. 2020. Lithium and brine geochemistry in the salars of the southern puna, Andean Plateau of Argentina. Economic Geology, 115(5), 1079–1096. doi: 10.5382/econgeo.4754.
|
Lowenstein TK, Dolginko LAC, García-Veigas J. 2016. Influence of magmatic-hydrothermal activity on brine evolution in closed basins: Searles Lake, California. Geological Society of America Bulletin, 128(9-10), 1555–1568. doi: 10.1130/b31398.1.
|
Lowenstein TK, Jagniecki EA, Carroll AR, Smith ME, Renaut RW, Owen RB. 2017. The green river salt mystery: What was the source of the hyperalkaline lake waters? Earth-Science Reviews, 173, 295–306. doi: 10.1016/j.earscirev.2017.07.014.
|
Ludington S, Moring BC, Miller RJ, Stone, PA, Bookstrom AA, Bedford DR, Evans JG, Haxel GA, Nutt CJ, Flyn KS, Hopkins MJ. 2007. Preliminary integrated geologic map data-bases for the United States. Western States: California, Nevada, Arizona, Washington, Oregon, Idaho, and Utah. U. S. Geological Survey, http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2005/1305.
|
Ma LC, Huang H, Zhang LY, Liu CL, Sun MG, Niu L. 2015. Characteristics of Paleogene deep potassium-rich brines in the Qianjiang depression, Hubei Province. Acta Geologica Sinica, 89(11), 2114–2121 (in Chinese with English abstract). doi: 10.19762/j.cnki.dizhixuebao.2015.11.022.
|
McQuarrie N. 2002. The kinematic history of the central Andean fold-thrust belt, Bolivia: Implications for building a high plateau. Geological Society of America Bulletin, 114(8), 950–963. doi: 10.1130/0016-7606(2002)114<0950:tkhotc>2.0.CO;2.
|
Misra S, Froelich PN. 2012. Lithium isotope history of Cenozoic seawater: Changes in silicate weathering and reverse weathering. Science, 335(6070), 818–823. doi: 10.1126/science.1214697.
|
Mohr SH, Mudd GM, Giurco D. 2012. Lithium resources and production: Critical assessment and global projections. Minerals, 2(1), 65–84. doi: 10.3390/min2010065.
|
Morgan LA, Shanks WCP, Pierce KL, Iverson N, Schiller CM, Brown SR, Zahajska P, Cartier R, Cash RW, Best JL, Whitlock C, Fritz S, Benzel W, Lowers H, Lovalvo DA, Licciardi JM. 2023. The dynamic floor of Yellowstone Lake, Wyoming, USA: The last 14 k. y. of hydrothermal explosions, venting, doming, and faulting. GSA Bulletin, 135(3–4), 547–574. doi: 10.1130/b36190.1.
|
Mou BL. 1999. Geochemistry of element. Beijing, Peking University Press: 149-152 (in Chinese with English abstract).
|
Munk LA, Chamberlain CP. 2011. Final Technical Report: G10AP00056 - Lithium Brine Resources: A Predictive Exploration Model. U. S. Geological Survey.
|
Munk LA, Hynek SA, Bradley DC, Boutt D, Labay K, Jochens H. 2016. Lithium brines: A global perspective. Rare Earth and Critical Elements in Ore Deposits: Society of Economic Geologists. doi: 10.5382/rev.18.14.
|
Nie Z, Bu LZ, Zheng MP, Zhang YS. 2010. Phase chemistry study on brine from the zabuye carbonate-type salt lake in Tibet. Acta Geologica Sinica, 84(4), 587–592 (in Chinese with English abstract). doi: 10.19762/j.cnki.dizhixuebao.2010.04.015.
|
Pan YD, Liu CL, Xu HM. 2011. Characteristics and formation of potassium-bearing brine in the deeper strata in depression in Hubei Jiangling province. Geology of Chemical Minerals, 33(2), 65–72 (in Chinese with English abstract). doi: 10.3969/j.issn.1006-5296.2011.02.001.
|
Prather BE, Goldstein RH, Kopaska-Merkel DC, Heydari E, Gill K, Minzoni M. 2023. Dolomitization of reservoir rocks in the smackover formation, southeastern gulf coast, U. S. A. Earth-Science Reviews, 244, 104512. doi: 10.1016/j.earscirev.2023.104512.
|
Price JG, Lechler PJ, Lear MB, Giles TF. 2000. Possible volcanic sources of lithium in brines in Clayton Valley, Nevada: Geology and Ore Deposits 2000, 241‒248
|
Ren JS, Chen TY, Niu BG, Liu ZG, Liu FR. 1990. Tectonic evolution and mineralization of continental lithosphere in eastern China. Beijing: Science Press, 205 (in Chinese with English abstract).
|
Ren JS, Jiang CF, Zhang ZK, Qin DH. 1980. Geotectonics and evolution in China. Beijing: Science Press, 124 (in Chinese with English abstract).
|
Risacher F, Fritz B. 1991. Quaternary geochemical evolution of the salars of Uyuni and Coipasa, central altiplano, Bolivia. Chemical Geology, 90(3-4), 211–231. doi: 10.1016/0009-2541(91)90101-V.
|
Ruff SW, Farmer JD. 2016. Silica deposits on Mars with features resembling hot spring biosignatures at El Tatio in Chile. Nature Communications, 7, 13554. doi: 10.1038/ncomms13554.
|
Schulz KJ, Deyoung JH, Seal RR, Bradley DC. 2017. Critical mineral resources of the United States-Economic and environmental geology and prospects for future supply. U. S. Geological Survey Professional Paper, 1802, K1–K21, doi: 10.3133/pp1802.
|
Shen J, Dai BL. 2009. Status quo of salt lake brine lithium resources and prospect of its exploitation and application. Industrial Minerals & Processing, 38(4), 1–4,7 (in Chinese with English abstract). doi: 10.16283/j.cnki.hgkwyjg.2009.04.004.
|
Shen JJ, Chen B, Wang CL, Chang JJ, Zhou XF, Guan XQ, Zhao ZP. 2015. Sedimentary characteristics and control factors of gypsum-salt rocks in the Paleogene Xingouzui Formation in Jiangling Depression, Jianghan Basin. Journal of Palaeogeography (Chinese Edition), 17(2), 265–274 (in Chinese). doi: 10.7605/gdlxb.2015.02.022.
|
Shen LJ, Liu CL, Xu HM, Wang CL, Wang LC, Liu BK, Zhang LB. 2014. Paleocene mineral assemblage characteristics of Jiangling Depression and their significance for potash formation. Mineral Deposits, 33(5), 1020–1030 (in Chinese). doi: 10.3969/j.issn.0258-7106.2014.05.011.
|
Shi LJ, Wang M. 2019. Hydrochemistry and behavior of K, Li and B in summer evaporation of Yiliping salt lake brine in Qaidam Basin. Journal of Lake Sciences, 31(2), 590–608 (in Chinese with English abstract). doi: 10.18307/2019.0226.
|
Shu LS. 2012. An analysis of principal features of tectonic evolution in South China Block. Geological Bulletin of China, 31(7), 1035–1053 (in Chinese with English abstract). doi: 10.3969/j.issn.1671-2552.2012.07.003.
|
Smith GI, Barczak VJ, Moulton GF, Liddicoat JC. 1983. Core KM-3, a surface-to-bedrock record of late Cenozoic sedimentation in Searles Valley, California. Geologocal Survey Professional Paper, 1256.
|
Song PS, Xiang RJ. 2014. Utilization and exploitation of lithium resources in salt lakes and some suggestions concerning development of Li industries in China. Mineral Deposits, 33(5), 977–992 (in Chinese with English abstract). doi: 10.16111/j.0258-7106.2014.05.007.
|
Sun X, Ouyang MG, Hao H. 2022. Surging lithium price will not impede the electric vehicle boom. Joule, 6(8), 1738–1742. doi: 10.1016/j.joule.2022.06.028.
|
Symcox C, Philp RP. 2023. Geochemical characteristics of oils from the sooner trend anadarko basin, Canadian, and kingfisher counties and south-central Oklahoma oil province plays, anadarko basin, Oklahoma. AAPG Bulletin, 107(4), 593–627. doi: 10.1306/10242222016.
|
Tan HB, Lu SC, Ta WQ, Rao WB, Guo HY. 2020. Water resource and mineral source significances of Nalenggele River Catchment in Qaidam Basin, Journal of Hohai University (Natural Sciences), 48(5), 392‒397 (in Chinese with English abstract), doi: 10.3876/j.issn.1000-1980.2020.05.002.
|
Tan HB, Wen XW, Rao WB, Bradd J, Huang JZ. 2016. Temporal variation of stable isotopes in a precipitation–groundwater system: Implications for determining the mechanism of groundwater recharge in high mountain–hills of the Loess Plateau, China. Hydrological Processes, 30(10), 1491–1505. doi: 10.1002/hyp.10729.
|
Teng FZ, McDonough WF, Rudnick RL, Dalpé C, Tomascak PB, Chappell BW, Gao S. 2004. Lithium isotopic composition and concentration of the upper continental crust. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 68(20), 4167–4178. doi: 10.1016/j.gca.2004.03.031.
|
Thompson JM, Fournier RO. 1988. Chemistry and geothermometry of brine produced from the Salton Sea scientific drill hole, i[LinkOut]mperial valley, California. Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth, 93(B11), 13165–13173. doi: 10.1029/jb093ib11p13165.
|
Tomascak PB. 2004. Developments in the understanding and application of lithium isotopes in the Earth and planetary sciences. Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry, 55(1), 153–195. doi: 10.2138/gsrmg.55.1.153.
|
Tomascak PB, Magna T, Dohmen R. 2016. Advances in Lithium Isotope Geochemistry. Springer International Publishing. doi: 10.1007/978-3-319-01430-2.
|
Tong GB, Jia XM, Zheng MP, Yuan HR, Liu JY, Wang WM. 2002. Palynological evidence of middle-late Eocene climatic cycles in Jianghan Basin. Acta Geosicientia Sinica, 23(2), 159–164 (in Chinese with English abstract). doi: 10.3321/j.issn:1006-3021.2002.02.011.
|
U. S. Geological Survey. 2019, Mineral commodity summaries 2019: U. S. Geological Survey, doi: 10.3133/70202434.
|
U. S. Geological Survey. 2020. Mineral commodity summaries 2020: U. S. Geological Survey, doi: 10.3133/mcs2020.
|
U. S. Geological Survey. 2022. Mineral Commodity Summaries 2022: U. S. Geological Survey, doi: 10.3133/mcs2022.
|
U. S. Geological Survey, 2023, Mineral commodity summaries 2023: U. S. Geological Survey, 210 p, doi: 10.3133/mcs2023.
|
Vakhromeev АG. 2014. Deposits of industrial multi-component brines of deep horizons of hydromineral province of the Siberian platform. Vestnik ISTU, 9(92), 73–78.
|
Vinante D, Alonso RN. 2006. Evapofacies del Salar Hombre Muerto, Puna Argentina: Distribucion y Genesis: Revista de la Asociación Geológica Argentina, 61(2), 286‒297.
|
Vine JD. 1976. Lithium abundance in oilfield waters: lithium resources and requirements by the year 2000. U. S. Geological Survey, doi: 10.3133/pp1005.
|
Wang A, Zhao YY, Xu H, Li XS. 2016. The characteristics of salt lake resources in Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. Journal of Salt Lake Research, 24(3), 24–29 (in Chinese with English abstract).
|
Wang BJ, Lin CS, Chen Y, Lu MG, Liu JY. 2006. Episodic tectonic movement and evolutional characteristics of the Jianghan Basin. Oil Geophysical Prospecting. 41, 226–230 (in Chinese with English abstract), doi: 10.3321/j.issn:1000-7210.2006.02.022.
|
Wang CL, Huang H, Wang JY, Xu HM, Yu XC, Gao C, Meng LY, Cai PR, Yan K, Fang JL. 2018. Geological features and metallogenic model of K-and Li-rich brine ore field in the Jiangling depression. Acta Geologica Sinica, 92(8), 1630–1646 (in Chinese with English abstract). doi: 10.3969/j.issn.0001-5717.2018.08.006.
|
Wang CL, Liu CL, Hu HB, Mao JS, Shen LJ, Zhao HT. 2012. Sedimentary characteristics and its environmental significance of salt-bearing strata of the Member 4 of Paleocene Shashi Formation in southern margin of Jiangling Depression, Jianghan Basin. Journal of Palaeogeography (Chinese Edition), 14(2), 165–175 (in Chinese).
|
Wang CL, Liu CL, Liu BK, Shen LJ, Cai XL, Yu XC, Xie TX, Wang LC, Zhao YJ, Xuan ZQ. 2015. The discovery of carnallite in Paleocene Jiangling depression and its potash searching significance. Acta Geologica Sinica, 89(1), 129–136 (in Chinese with English abstract). doi: 10.19762/j.cnki.dizhixuebao.2015.01.010.
|
Wang CL, Liu CL, Xu HM, Wang LC, Zhang LB. 2013a. Carbon and oxygen isotopes characteristics of palaeocene saline lake facies carbonates in Jiangling depression and their environmental significance. Acta Geoscientica Sinica, 34(5), 567–576 (in Chinese with English abstract). doi: 10.3975/cagsb.2013.05.07.
|
Wang CL, Liu CL, Wang LC, Zhang LB. 2013b. Reviews on potash deposit metallogenic conditions. Advances in Earth Science, 28(9), 976–987 (in Chinese with English abstract). doi: 10.11867/j.issn.1001-8166.2013.09.0976.
|
Wang CL, Liu LH, Li Q, Meng LY, Liu CL, Zhang YY, Wang JY, Yu XC, Yan K. 2020. Petrogeochemical characteristics and genetic analysis of the source area of brine type lithium-potassium ore sources area in Jitai basin of Jiangxi Province. Acta Petrologica et Mineralogica, 39(1), 65–84 (in Chinese with English abstract).
|
Wang CL, Meng LY, Liu CL, Yu XC, Yan K, Liu SH, You C, Li KK, Teng XH. 2021a. A study of the genesis of Paleocene underground brine boron deposits in Jiangling Depression. Acta Petrologica et Mineralogica, 40(1), 1–13 (in Chinese with English abstract). doi: 10.3969/j.issn.1000-6524.2021.01.001.
|
Wang CL, Yu XC, Li RQ, Liu LH, Yan K, You C. 2021b. Origin of lithium–potassium-rich brines in the Jianghan Basin, South China: Constraints by water–rock reactions of Mesozoic–Cenozoic igneous rocks. Minerals, 11(12), 1330. doi: 10.3390/min11121330.
|
Wang GS. 2001. The influence on global lithium mining industry by the technology development on extracting lithium from salt lake-the consideration caused by the reformation of lithium mining industry of the world. Resources & Industries, 3(5), 37–38 (in Chinese). doi: 10.3969/j.issn.1673-2464.2001.05.012.
|
Wang LC, Liu CL, Wang CL, Xu HM, Zhang YM. 2017. Lithium isotope evidence for the source of potassium-rich brine solutes in the Jiangling depression of Central China. Acta Geologica Sinica - English Edition, 91(1), 363–364. doi: 10.1111/1755-6724.13092.
|
Wang JY, Liu CL, Wang CL, Yu XC, Yan K, Gao C. 2021. Tectono-paleoclimatic coupling process for mineralization of Late Cretaceous-Paleogene evaporites in South China. Acta Geologica Sinica, 95(7), 2041–2051 (in Chinese with English abstract). doi: 10.19762/j.cnki.dizhixuebao.2021229.
|
Wang QS, Qiu JZ, Shao HN, Xu H. 2015. Analysis on metallogenic characteristic and resource potential of salt lake brine lithium deposits in the global. China Mining Magazine, 24(11), 82–88 (in Chinese with English abstract). doi: 10.3969/j.issn.1004-4051.2015.11.018.
|
Weynell M, Wiechert U, Schuessler JA. 2021. Lithium isotope signatures of weathering in the hyper-arid climate of the western Tibetan Plateau. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 293, 205–223. doi: 10.1016/j.gca.2020.10.021.
|
Williams AK, Bacosa HP, Quigg A. 2017. The impact of dissolved inorganic nitrogen and phosphorous on responses of microbial plankton to the Texas City “Y” oil spill in Galveston Bay, Texas (USA). Marine Pollution Bulletin, 121(1–2), 32–44. doi: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2017.05.033.
|
Xu ZQ, Zheng BH, Wang Q. 2021. From accretion to collision: Situation and outlook. Acta Geologica Sinica, 95(1), 75–97 (in Chinese with English abstract). doi: 10.19762/j.cnki.dizhixuebao.2021050.
|
Yaksic A, Tilton JE. 2009. Using the cumulative availability curve to assess the threat of mineral depletion: The case of lithium. Resources Policy, 34(4), 185–194. doi: 10.1016/j.resourpol.2009.05.002.
|
Yan K, Wang CL, Liu CL, Mischke S, Wang JY, Yu XC. 2022. Reconstruction of early Paleogene landscapes and climate in the Jianghan Basin, Central China: Evidence from evaporites and palynology. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 601, 111095. doi: 10.1016/j.palaeo.2022.111095.
|
Yao QC, Lou JS. 2008. An analysis of hydrocarbon pooling conditions in Yuanjiang sag, the Dongting basin. Natural Gas Industry, 28(9), 37–40. (in Chinese). doi: 10.3787/j.issn.1000-0976.2008.09.010.
|
Yu JJ, Zheng MP, Wu Q. 2013. Research progress of lithium extraction process in lithium-containing salt lake. Chemical Industry and Engineering Progress, 32(1), 13–21 (in Chinese with English abstract). doi: 10.3969/j.issn.1000-6613.2013.01.002.
|
Yu JQ, Hong RC, Gao CL, Cheng AY, Zhang LS. 2018. Lithium brine deposits in Qaidam Basin: Constraints on formation processes and distribution pattern. Journal of Salt Lake Research, 26(1), 7–14 (in Chinese with English abstract).
|
Yu SY, Liu M, Zhao YY, Zheng MP. 2022. Hydrochemical characteristics of large-scale lithium-boronmine basin in the Mami Co Saline Lake, Tibet. Acta Geologica Sinica, 96(6), 2195–2205 (in Chinese with English abstract). doi: 10.19762/j.cnki.dizhixuebao.2022001.
|
Yu XC, Liu CL, Wang CL, Zhao JX, Wang JY. 2021. Origin of geothermal waters from the Upper Cretaceous to lower Eocene strata of the Jiangling Basin, South China: Constraints by multi-isotopic tracers and water-rock interactions. Applied Geochemistry, 124, 104810. doi: 10.1016/j.apgeochem.2020.104810.
|
Yu XC, Wang CL, Huang H, Wang JY. 2022. Origin and evolution of deep-seated K-rich brine in Paleogene of Qianjiang depression, Hubei Province. Earth Science, 47(1), 122–135 (in Chinese with English abstract).
|
Yu XQ, Shu LS, Deng GH, Wang B, Zu FP. 2005. Geochemical characteristics and tectonic significance of alkaline basalt in Jitai basin, Jiangxi Province. Geoscience, 19(1), 133–140 (in Chinese).
|
Zhao YJ, Jiao PC, Wang MQ, Zhang DY, Zhu ZG, Hu YF. 2021. Characteristics of lithium-rich brine, reservoir physical properties and analysis on water-rich areas in the Yiliping salt lake, Qaidam basin. Acta Geologica Sinica, 95(7), 2062–2072 (in Chinese with English abstract). doi: 10.19762/j.cnki.dizhixuebao.2021160.
|
Zhao YY. 2003. Saline lake lithium resources of China and its exploitation. Mineral Deposits, 22(1), 99–106 (in Chinese with English abstract).
|
Zhao YY, Zheng MP, Bu LZ, Nie Z, Liu XF. 2005. Study on salt pan technology of lithium salt extracting from carbonate-type saline lakes, Tibet. Sea-Lake Salt and Chemical Industry, 34(2), 1–6,9 (in Chinese with English abstract). doi: 10.16570/j.cnki.issn1673-6850.2005.02.001.
|
Zheng MP. 1989. Salt lakes in Tibetan Plateau. Beijing: Science and Technology Press, 1–470.
|
Zheng MP, Wang XD, Peng QM, Chen ZY, Zhao YY, Dai ZX, Zeng WQ. 2001. Exploitation trend of saline lake lithium resources in China. The Chinese Journal of Nonferrous Metals, 11(1), 17–20 (in Chinese with English abstract).
|
Zheng XY, Zhang MG, Xu C, Li BX. 2002. Annals of salt lakes in China. Beijing, Scientifical Press, 1–415 (in Chinese with English abstract).
|
Zherebtsova IK, Volkova NN. 1966. Experimental study of trace elements behavior under natural sunny evaporation of Black Sea water and brines of Lake Sasyk-Sivash. Geochemistry, N7, 832–845.
|
Zhou XM, Li WX. 2000. Origin of late Mesozoic igneous rocks in Southeastern China: Implications for lithosphere subduction and underplating of mafic magmas. Tectonophysics, 326(3-4), 269–287. doi: 10.1016/S0040-1951(00)00120-7.
|
Zhu RZ, Li WS, Wu BH, Liu CL. 1989. New geological understanding of Yiliping and East and West Tai Kinaire Lakes in Qaidam Basin, Qinghai Province. Geological review, 35(6), 558–565 (in Chinese with English abstract).
|